Glossary

Codes\Abbreviation

Good writers adhere to good usage of grammar and accurate sentences not merely to abide by a bunch of rules, but because to do otherwise is not effective. Grammatically inaccurate sentences confuse readers and detract from writer credibility. Regardless of how well you write, if there are too many sentence errors your writing will suffer greatly!
 
Students in Eng 121 are expected to know Basic Grammatical Requirements.
To be an effective writer become familiar and adhere to them. They are explained throughout this Glossary.

      Guide to understanding codes, sentence mechanics, making corrections, and enhancing writing
      When assignments are returned, they will have many comments on them. Often these comments will be brief codes\abbreviations  that indicate where a
      sentence error has been made.

• This Glossary explains the codes\abbreviations on your returned work and provides explanation of them, shows how to make corrections, and gives examples

Don't explain what you are going to do; just do it

example 1 of AD
In conclusion, it seems apparent that cats make good pets.
correction
Cats make good pets.

example 2 of AD
As I will explain in this essay, cats make good pets.
correction
Cats make good pets.

example 3 of AD
As was proven by the facts presented above, cats make good pets.
correction
Cats make good pets.

DM
dangling
modifier

A modifier is a word or group of words that enhances the meaning of a noun. If it is in the wrong part of a sentence, it is MISPLACED. It ends up modifying the wrong noun.

The word directly following a modifying phrase or word is what is being modified.

example 1 MPM
Smashed against the pole, Joe saw his car.
 modifying phrase              N (object) - (not accurate - Joe is not smashed against the pole)
correction: Place the modifying phrase near the object it is modifying
ex: I saw my car smashed against the pole (accurate - the car is smashed against the pole)
or
ex: Smashed against the pole my car was visible.  (accurate - the car is smashed against the pole)

example 2 of MPM
I nearly gained10 pounds last semester.
modifying word
You are telling the reader that you almost gained......  (not accurate - you did gain)
correction: Place the Modifying phrase near the object it is modifying.
ex: I gained nearly 10 pounds last semester. (close to 10 pounds - that is accurate)

example 3 of MPM
Joe saw a large bear looking through his binoculars. (not accurate - bears do not look through binoculars)
                                modifying phrase 
correction: Place the Modifying phrase near the object it is modifying.
ex: Looking through my binoculars, Joe saw a large bear. (accurate - Joe is looking through his binoculars)
 

also see: anonymous

I will get to it when I have time - keep checking your grades to be sure it appears.

Note:
* An NSR designated assignment must be addressed in a timely manner, or it may not be accepted.
* Because of the timely nature and content of some assignments, some NSR assignments may not be accepted.
* If this problem persists, except that I will stop accepting this type of incorrectly labeled or done work
 

The word you are using is not a word in the English language.  

example 1of NSW
I have alot of work to do, so I am kinda busy today.
explanation
alot is not a word - it is 2 words: a lot.
kinda is not a word - it is 2 words: kind of
correction:
I have a lot of work to do, so I am kind of busy today.
             
example 2 of NSW
I'm gonna go to college after I finish highschool.
explanation
gonna is not a word - it is 2 words: going to.
highschool is not a word - it is 2 words: high school
correction:
I'm going to go to college after I finish high school.

example 3 of NSW
Leon shoulda come with us last nite
explanation
shoulda is not a word - it is 2 words: should hav
nite is not a word - you mean night
correction:
Leon should have come with us last night

1st Person
Definition
First person is the person speaking about the events in a sentence. Usually the focus is on the speaker(s).
Examples
I walked 30 miles to the village.
(In this sentence the person is talking to someone, the person is telling someone the story, the person is speaking.)
Having being separated at birth, we talked for hours and hours.
(In this sentence the person is talking to someone, this person is telling someone their story, the person is speaking.)
My dog is sick.
(In this sentence, the person is telling someone, what happened, the person is speaking)
Disgusted by the cook's coughing we left the restaurant.
(In this sentence the person is telling the story, the person is speaking, the person is speaking of an event.)

First Pronouns
I, we, me, us, my, mine, our, and ours

Here is an example of first person in a passage from a story entitled Survival at Sea by Ariane Randall;
My trip to a resort in Haiti began at New York's La Guardia Airport, two weeks after my fourteenth birthday... While waiting around, I met Anna Rivera and Delia Clarke... I had a great time during my week in Haiti, water skiing, snorkeling, swimming, and sun tanning, things I don't get to do much in New York City.

Re-focusing 1st person to 3rd person
First  person is not often used in college writing. Students are asked to write about subjects being studied, not themselves. To keep out of first person, try to focus on the event or noun which is being written about, not the person doing or experiencing the action. Below are some sentences written in the first person, and how to put them (re-focus) to be 3rd person writing.
EX:
First person
I love the food at Big Jim's luncheonette. The Jane, my favorite waitress, gives me extra whipped cream on my pie. I always give her a big tip. (the focus is on the writer- not the topic that should be written about)
Re-focused to be 3rd person
Big Jim's has the best food around. Jane, the most popular waitress, is eager to please by doling out lot of whipped cream on the pie servings, and in return, patrons are happy to give her extra big tips. (the focus is on Big Jim's and Jane -the topic that should be written about)
First person
When studying, I find it is best to do it in the morning. I am usually more awake, and my mind is clear and ready to learn.
(the focus is on the writer- not the topic that should be written about)
Re-focused to be 3rd person
Studying is best done in the morning when the mind is more awake, clear, and ready to learn.
 (the focus is on Studying -the topic that should be written about)
 
2nd Person
Definition
Second person is the person being talked (spoken) to.
Second person is the reader - NOT the writer!

Examples
You walked 30 miles to the village?
(In this sentence the person is being spoken to by someone else.)
Because the two of you were separated at birth, you spent hours and hours talking.
(In this sentence the person is being spoken to by someone else)
What happened, is your dog sick?
(In this sentence the person is being spoken to by someone else.)

Here are more sentences in the second person.
Wow! Look at how much you have grown.
When do you go to sleep?
You did such a good job at painting the house.

2nd Person Pronoun
you, your, yours

Re-focusing 2nd person to 3rd person
Second person (YOU) is often used incorrectly. To avoid this common and inaccurate error, try to focus n the event or noun of which is being written about, not the person doing or experiencing the action. Below are some sentences that are incorrectly written in the second person, and how to fix (re-focus) the sentence.
EX:
inaccurate second person
To learn how to operate a fork lift, you must first get your operator's license, and then you need to pass a Class A operator's test. (the focus is on the reader- not the topic that should be written about)
Re-focused to be 3rd person
An operator's license and passing the Class A operator's test is needed for anyone interested in becoming a fork lift operator. (the focus is on the operator's license- the topic that should be written about)
inaccurate second person
When Larry went to New York, he was very vigilant because you never know when something dangerous can happen.
(you in this example referees to the reader)
Re-focused to be 3rd person
When Larry went to New York, he was very vigilant because it can be dangerous.
(the focus is on New York)

For more help with inappropriate use of YOU see: you
 
3rd Person
Definition
Third person also known as the third person objective point of view it is when a person or thing is being talked (spoken) about. It is everything in the world except the writer or the reader.

Important note
Most college writing is in 3rd person.
As a college student, you will be asked to write about: Literature, Biology, Psychology, History, etc..........course content.
You will most likely not be asked to write about yourself (1st person) or the reader (2nd person)
It is important to understand and be able to write in 3rd person.

Examples
She walked 30 miles to the village.
(The person is being talked about)
Having been separated at birth, they talked for hours and hours.
(The people are being talked about)
Their dog is sick.
(The animal is being talked about)

Here are more sentences in the third person.
He left dinner without a word.
The scary Lion sat on top of the rocks and roared. (The thing which in this case is the lion, is being spoken about.)
The old man gave them the tickets.
With much hesitation they approached the dark house.
The children ran into the house because their clothes were all soiled.

All nouns are in the third person;
cat, dog, school, tree, car, Uncle Ted, Mr. Kennedy, Bob's new car, the little red haired girl in the corner etc......

Here is an example of third person from a book entitled; Wicked by Gregory Maguire;
Frex was more concerned for Melena than she knew. He stopped at the first Fisherman's hut he saw and spoke with the man at the half-door. Could a woman or two spend the day and if needed the night with Melena? It would be kindness. Frex nodded with a wince of gratitude, acknowledging without words that Melena was not a great favorite in these parts.

3rd Person Pronouns
he, she, it, him her, his, hers, its, they, them, their, and theirs
 
Mixing Persons & pronouns & how to refocus\fix
Stay in one person
ex: Mixed and improperly used pronouns
I enjoy an occasional trip to the Queen's Arms pub in Manhattan. They treat you well but because they are often crowded.
(first person)                                                                                                      (They is plural and cannot be used to replace the Queen's Arms singular)  
 you need to make a reservation if you want to get a table.
(2nd person)                         (2nd person)

Corrections & refocus to 3rd person
The Queen's Arms in Manhattan is a very enjoyable yet crowded pub. To get a table, reservation are often required.

Shows ownership - may have been omitted or used in place of a plural.

Singular Possessive = ownership by one = apostrophe goes before the "s"
Incorrect
I went to Bobs house. (plural = several guys named Bob - missing an apostrophe)
   this is plural - not possessive)
Correct
I went to Bob's house (the house that belongs to Bob)
           (possessive)

Plural possessive  = ownership by more than one = apostrophe goes after the "s"
Incorrect
This is my parent's house
    (the house belongs to both parents not just one)
Correct
This is my parents' house
    (the house belongs to both parents).
 

Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns.
They must agree with the antecedent, (the noun they are taking the place of in Gender, Number, & Case.

  Gender: (male, female)
    ex: Jason liked Mary so much that he asked her for a date.
           male        female                  male       female

  Number (singular pronoun for singular noun; plural pronoun for plural noun
     ex: I must go to the mall early this Saturday because it is having a sale on camping equipment.  
                                singular                                  singular
     ex:: The team practiced diligently won its game.
                singular                              singular
      ex: The boys on the team practiced diligently and won their game.
                  plural                                                      plural possessive
      ex: Someone called you last night and left his phone number.
              singular                                      singular
      ex: Children must be taught manners, so they grow up to be polite..
             plural                                            plural  

Case (subjective or objective)

Subjective case = used as subjects of a sentence or a Main Clause (MC)  (I, you, he, she , it, who, we, you, they)
                          ex: Conrad and she went to the movies.
                               subject      subject of sentence
                          ex: Because it  is hot outside, May and she stayed indoors by the air conditioner. 
                                                                             subject of the MC
                          ex: Kenny and I had a great time at the movies
                                subject    subject of sentence 

 Objective Case = not subject (me, you, him, her, it, whom, us, you, them)
                            ex: Sam gave his baseball tickets to us because he couldn't attend the game
                            this is subject                           not subject (object receives)
                            ex: Larry sat next to Nancy and me at the presentation.
                               this is subject                   not subject (object receives)                

 Some common pronoun errors with corrections
                                                                            
             Incorrect: I must go to the mall early Saturday because they are having a sale.
                                             (one mall = singular noun)            (they = plural pronoun)
            Correct: I must go to the mall early this Saturday because it is having a sale on camping equipment.
                                     (one mall = singular noun)               (it = singular pronoun)

              Incorrect: The team practiced diligently and won their game.
                     (one team = singular noun)             (their = plural  pronoun
                Correct: The team practiced diligently and won its game
                        (one team = singular noun)           (its = singular pronoun

              Incorrect: Someone is on the phone, and they want to talk to you.
                              (someone= singular noun)     (they = plural pronoun)

              Correct: Someone is on the phone, and she wants to talk to you.
                           (someone= singular noun)     (she = singular pronoun)

               Incorrect: It is important to teach a child manners so that they will grow up to be polite.
                                                       (a child = singular noun)   (they = plural pronoun)
                 Correct: It is important to teach children manners so that they will grow up to be polite.
                                                     (children = plural noun)            (plural pronoun)  

               Incorrect: A parent is important because they instill values and morals in their children.
                              (a parent = singular noun)    (they plural pronoun)               (their plural pronoun)
                 Correct: Parents is important because they instill values and morals in their children.
                             (parents = plural noun)       (they plural pronoun)               (they plural pronoun)

               Incorrect: Conrad and her went to the movies.
                               (her is objective = used to receive - not be a subject)
                  Correct: Conrad and she went to the movies
                               (Conrad and she = subject of the sentence).

               Incorrect: Kenny and me went to the movies.
                               (me is objective = used to receive - not be a subject)
                  Correct: Conrad and I went to the movies
                               (Conrad and I = subject of the sentence).

               Incorrect: Kenny and went to the movies with Bob and I
                               (Kenny = subject)                              ( I is only used for subject - not to receive)
                  Correct: Kenny and went to the movies with Bob and me
                              (Kenny = subject)                               ( me is objective - receives)

               Incorrect: Larry sat next to Nancy and I at the concert.
                               (Larry = subject)            ( I is only used for subject - not to receive)
                 Correct: Larry sat next to Nancy and me at the concert.
                              (Kenny = subject)          ( me is objective - receives)

Parallel Structure

Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."

Words and Phrases

With the -ing form (gerund) of words:

With infinitive phrases:

(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)

Do not mix forms.

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3

Clauses

A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.

Example 1

Example 2

Lists After a Colon

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.

Example 1

Proofreading Strategies to Try:

• Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.
• If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.
• Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do you hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm o

Using Quotation Marks

The primary function of quotation marks is to set off and represent exact language (either spoken or written) that has come from somebody else. The quotation mark is also used to designate speech acts in fiction and sometimes poetry. Since you will most often use them when working with outside sources, successful use of quotation marks is a practical defense against accidental plagiarism and an excellent practice in academic honesty. The following rules of quotation mark use are the standard in the United States, although it may be of interest that usage rules for this punctuation do vary in other countries.

The following covers the basic use of quotation marks. For details and exceptions consult the separate sections of this guide.

Direct Quotations

Direct quotations involve incorporating another person's exact words into your own writing.

1. Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it at the end of the quoted material.

2. Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete sentence.

3. Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece of the original material's complete sentence.

4. If a direct quotation is interrupted mid-sentence, do not capitalize the second part of the quotation.

5. In all the examples above, note how the period or comma punctuation always comes before the final quotation mark. It is important to realize also that when you are using MLA or some other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change.

When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the error exactly in your own text. However, also insert the term sic in italics directly after the mistake, and enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to "thus," "so," or "just as that." The word tells the reader that your quote is an exact reproduction of what you found, and the error is not your own.

6. Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively short. Too many quotations in a research paper will get you accused of not producing original thought or material (they may also bore a reader who wants to know primarily what YOU have to say on the subject).

Indirect Quotations

Indirect quotations are not exact wordings but rather rephrasing or summaries of another person's words. In this case, it is not necessary to use quotation marks. However, indirect quotations still require proper citations, and you will be committing plagiarism if you fail to do so.

Many writers struggle with when to use direct quotations versus indirect quotations. Use the following tips to guide you in your choice.

Use direct quotations when the source material uses language that is particularly striking or notable. Do not rob such language of its power by altering it.

The above should never stand in for:

Use an indirect quotation (or paraphrase) when you merely need to summarize key incidents or details of the text.

Use direct quotations when the author you are quoting has coined a term unique to her or his research and relevant within your own paper.

When to use direct quotes versus indirect quotes is ultimately a choice you'll learn a feeling for with experience. However, always try to have a sense for why you've chosen your quote. In other words, never put quotes in your paper simply because your teacher says, "You must use quotes."

You are repeating yourself. Don't do it.

          ex: My goal is to be successful and  to achieve  my highest goal.
              be successful                       be successful    be successful
correction: My goal is to be successful.

          ex: My girlfriend Melinda is my best friend. She is at the top of my list.
                    (someone at the top of your list IS your best friend.
correction: My girlfriend Melinda is my best friend.     

      ex:  I rely on Melinda to help me when I need a shoulder to cry on. She is really dependable, and I go to her for help
                        dependable                                                            dependable                       dependable           
 correction: I rely on Melinda
 

The relevance of what you are saying is not clear (how does it relate?)
How does this sentences within this paragraph support the topic sentence of the paragraph?
How does this paragraph (or topic sentence-MI of the paragraph) support the Thesis?
ex: My brother is very smart (MI of a paragraph)
       He has a 4.0 GPA in college. (ok - proves he is smart)
       He can learn new computer programs quickly. (ok - proves he is smart)
       He is a great football player. (REL - is not relevant - does not prove\support that he is smart)

You can use as many MC in a sentence as you want as long as you punctuate and\or coordinate them correctly.

*NOTE -a similar sentence confusion is joining 2 (MC) main clauses with a comma - creating a Comma Spliced Sentence.

Sexist Language - Using gender specific pronouns\nouns\references when speaking of all genders
           ex: You must teach a child manners so as an adult he will be polite.             
                                                                       (only refers to males)
             ex: You must teach a child manners so as an adult she will be polite.             
                                                                         (only refers to females)
correction: You must teach children manners so as adults they will be polite.
                                                                          (refers to all children)

This is not formal and/or often acceptable language. It may detract from credible meaning.
            ex: This test sucks.
                         (overused, trite, dull, street slang)
        better: This test is difficult and causing me considerable distress.
                       (exhibits good vocabulary & mature thoughts)
           ex: She lost her temper and yelled at her kids
                                                         (kids are really baby goats - this is a slang term for children)
        better: She lost her temper and yelled at her children

The subject is not clear or missing

The predicate is not clear or missing
It is not punctuated or coordinated correctly

A sentence is a group of word that = ONE COMPLETE THOUGHT

It must have

A sentence may have:    (simple = 1     compound = 2 or more)

simple subject + simple predicate
   ex: John ran

simple subject + compound predicate
   ex: John ran, jumped, then rested.

compound subject + simple predicate
   ex: John, Bill, and Frank ran.

compound subject + compound predicate
 ex: John, Bill, and Frank ran, jumped, then rested.

There are several types of sentence.
see: Clauses before attempting to understand the types of sentences.
       (MC = main clause    DC = dependant clause)

Simple Sentence
   One MC
   ex: John ran.

Complex Sentence
   May also have more a DC.
         Because John ran, Sally did not. (note comma usage)
         Sally did not because John ran.

Compound Sentence
   2 or more MC (must be punctuated and coordinated properly) see:
   ex: John ran, but Sally did not.
        John ran; Sally did not.
        John ran; however, Sally did not.

Complex\Compound Sentence
   2 or more MC + at least one DC (note punctuation)
   Because John ran, Sally did not, but she attended the game.
 

To be an effective interesting writer, as explained above:
Be sure to have clear subject & predicate.
Vary sentence types, lengths, and complexity as explained above.
Be sure to make it accurate and grammatically correct. (proper punctuation & coordination)

Subjects and verbs must agree in number.
 * In most sentences, usually either the subject or the verb will have an s

A singular subject must agree with a singular verb
   singular subjects usually do not have an S on the end
   singular verbs usually do have an S on the end.

ex: My baby cousin Tommy is a difficult child because he cries a lot.
            singular subject ( no s)                                       singular verb (s)

A plural subjects must agree with a plural verb
   plural subjects usually do have an S on the end
   plural  verbs usually do not have an S on the end

ex: My baby cousins are not difficult because they do not cry a lot:
         plural subject ( s)                                      plural verb (no s)                                                              

VS
verb shift
error

VT
verb tense
error
  

An essay is basically exploring something in the PAST the PRESENT or the FUTURE.
Verbs for the most part must remain in the same tense as the essay.
Mixing (shifting)  tenses confuses a reader.

Verb Shift
Verbs tell when action in a sentence occur; going from one tense to another is confusing

ex 1 of shifting verbs
The boys want ice cream, and the girls wanted popcorn.
          present tense                         past tense
correction
The boys wanted ice cream, and the girls want popcorn.   
          past tense                               past tense
or
The boys want ice cream, and the girls want popcorn.   
        present tense                      present tense

ex 2 of shifting verbs               
She would water the plants and gave them food yesterday.
       past perfect                      past
correction
She watered the plants and gave them food yesterday.
        past                         past 

ex 2 of shifting verbs
I run about five miles every day, and then I ate a big mea
 present                                                  past
correction
I run about five miles every day, and then I eat a big meal
 present                                               present
or
 I ran about five mile yesterday and ate a big meal.
  past                                          past

Verb Tense
Verbs for the most part must remain in the same tense. Work on your verbs; you are confusing tenses
Most writing will probably be the SIMPLE PAST. Keep verbs consistent. To do otherwise confuses a reader.

This indicates a direct or indirect approach to writing.
There are 2 basic voices:

Active = Subject performs action   (direct - usually most effective way write)
    ex: The committee reached a decision

Passive = Subject receives action (indirect - usually less effective)
    ex: The decision was reached by the committee.
 

Don't be unnecessarily wordy. When the meaning is obvious, don't repeat or expand or add more words

Wordiness from unnecessary words

example 1 of W
I was driving my car on the road. Suddenly my passenger next to me got sick.
explanation
Cars are always driven on roads; no need to tell a reader this common knowledge.
Passengers = people in the car; no need to tell a reader what is obvious.   
correction

I was driving my car, and my passenger got sick.
example 2 of W
The sun brightly shone in the sky, and it was so beautiful, tears fell from my eyes.
explanation
The sun is always in the sky - it can't  be anywhere else
Tears always come from your eyes
correction
The brightly shining sun made me cry.

example 3 of W
In my opinion, this is the best movie I ever saw in my life. 
explanation
everything you say is your opinion (unless being documented)
everything that happens to you happens in your life - no need to saw it.
correction
This is the best movie I ever saw.

example 4 of W
To be honest,
explanation
Honesty is an assumption a reader assumes - Have you been lying to this point? Now you are finally going to be honest? If you have been lying all along, why should I believe you now?
correction
I don't like convertible cars very much.

incorrect word (s) are being use
ex 1 of WC
I would of entered the race if only I could a gotten some free time to practice.
     wrong word                              wrong word
correction
I would have entered the race if only I could have gotten some free time to practice.          

ex 2 of WC
There parents past the exit on the highway.
pro needed    wrong word
correction
Their parents passed the exit on the highway.

ex 3 of WC
The whether was beautiful today; Frank couldn't decide weather or not to go swimming.
      wrong word                                                        wrong word
correction
The weather was beautiful today; Frank couldn't decide whether or not to go swimming.

ex 4 of WC
My pen is brand knew, and it costs only seventy five sense.  
                      wrong word                                    wrong word
correction
My pen is brand new, and it costs only seventy five cents

Verbs in a sentence are not in the same tense, form, and are not consistent.
ex of a no parallel sentence:
Many people get up early to jog, to observe nature, or are watching the sun come up.
correction
Many people get up early to jog, to observe nature, or to watch the sun come up.

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